Python Code Samples From the Slide.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# F28 PL Python Lecture Codes and Example\n",
    "\n",
    "based on Jamie Gabbay course lecture made by Kayvan Karim <br>\n",
    "Some examples are from Lutz, Mark. Learning python: Powerful object-oriented programming. \" O'Reilly Media, Inc.\", 2013.\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Usefull Links"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Python Code Visualiser\n",
    "\n",
    "http://www.pythontutor.com/visualize.html#mode=edit <br>\n",
    "\n",
    "Python Offical site<br>\n",
    "https://www.python.org/ <br>\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "<a id=\"toc\"></a>\n",
    "## Table of Content\n",
    "\n",
    "[1. First Interaction](#firstinteraction)<br>\n",
    "[2. Numbers](#numbers)<br>\n",
    "[3. Assignment](#assignment)<br>\n",
    "[4. Floating Point](#floatingpoint)<br>\n",
    "[5. Complex Numbers](#complexnumbers)<br>\n",
    "[6. Bit Operations](#bitoperations)<br>\n",
    "[7. String](#string)<br>\n",
    "[8. List](#list)<br>\n",
    "[9. Booleans](#booleans)<br>\n",
    "[10. While](#while)<br>\n",
    "[11. If](#if)<br>\n",
    "[12. For](#for)<br>\n",
    "[13. Range Function](#rangefunction)<br>\n",
    "[14. For-/While-loops: break, continue, else](#forwhile)<br>\n",
    "[15. The Empty Expression](#empty)<br>\n",
    "[16. The None Value](#none)<br>\n",
    "[17. Procedures](#procedures)<br>\n",
    "[18. On Parameters](#onparameters)<br>\n",
    "[19. Global Variables](#globalvariables)<br>\n",
    "[20. Return Values](#returnvalues)<br>\n",
    "[21. Doc String](#docstring)<br>\n",
    "[22. Anonymous Functions](#anonymousfunctions)<br>\n",
    "[23. More List Operations](#morelistoperations)<br>\n",
    "[24. Higher-Order Functions on Lists](#higherorderfunctionsonlists)<br>\n",
    "[25. List Comprehensions](#listcomprehensions)<br>\n",
    "[26. Deletion](#deletion)<br> \n",
    "[27. Tuples](#tuples)<br> \n",
    "[28. Sets](#sets)<br> \n",
    "[29. dictionaries](#dictionaries)<br> \n",
    "[30. Deletion And More](#deletionmore)<br> \n",
    "[31. Mutable](#mutable)<br> \n",
    "[32. Loop Techniques](#looptechniques)<br> \n",
    "[33. Comparison Sequences](#comparisonsequences)<br> \n",
    "[34. Equality And Identity](#equalityandidentity)<br> \n",
    "[35. Copy And Deepcopy](#copyanddeepcopy)<br> \n",
    "[36. More On Recursion](#moreonrecursion)<br> \n",
    "[37. Modules](#modules)<br> \n",
    "[38. Output Formatting](#outputformatting)<br> \n",
    "[39. Exceptions](#exceptions)<br> \n",
    "[40. Iteratorsin Detail](#iteratorsindetail)<br> \n",
    "[41. Generators](#generators)<br> \n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"firstinteraction\"></a>\n",
    "# Our first Python interaction\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Hello World and some handy tools"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x= \"Hello World\" #This is a comment"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello World\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 4,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Hello WorldHello WorldHello World'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 5,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x*3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "x = 1\n",
      "y = 2\n",
      "x = 2\n",
      "y = 1\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x=1\n",
    "y=2\n",
    "print(\"x =\",x)\n",
    "print(\"y =\",y)\n",
    "t=x\n",
    "x=y\n",
    "y=t\n",
    "print(\"x =\",x)\n",
    "print(\"y =\",y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"numbers\"></a>\n",
    "# Numbers\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "2+2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2.3333333333333335"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "7/3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-2.3333333333333335"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 9,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "7/-3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "7//3 # integer division"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "100000000"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "10**8 # ‘To the power of’"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = 7/3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.is_integer()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2.3333333333333335"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 12,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<function float.__round__(ndigits=None, /)>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 13,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.__round__"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 14,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.__round__()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "float"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 16,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(x.__round__())"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "if two multiples are equally close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example, both round(0.5) and round(-0.5) are 0, and round(1.5) is 2)\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html?highlight=round#round"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "*float.as_integer_ratio()* is a type-specific method for floats\n",
    "\n",
    "Returns a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the original float and with a positive denominator."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1.5\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(3, 2)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "my_int=3/2\n",
    "print(my_int)\n",
    "my_int.as_integer_ratio()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "ratio= x.as_integer_ratio()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "(5254199565265579, 2251799813685248)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(ratio)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2.3333333333333335"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "ratio[0]/ratio[1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Handy tip: Type ‘ x. ’ then double-tab. Lists methods of x ."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Integer vs Float Precision \n",
    "Integers are infinite precision, floats aren’t. This can lead to innocent\n",
    "fun <br>\n",
    "\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/floatingpoint.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1000000000000000000000000000000\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 52,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "i = 10**30 # integer computation\n",
    "print(i)\n",
    "type(i)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 53,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1e+30\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "float"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 53,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f = 1E30\n",
    "print(f)\n",
    "type(f)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 54,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1000000000000000019884624838656\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fi = int(f) # float computation, convert to integer\n",
    "print(fi)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 55,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "19884624838656"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 55,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fi-i"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "seems like rounding error crept in\n",
    "19884624838656 # only 20 trillion out!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 56,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def tower(n):\n",
    "    if n==0:\n",
    "        return 2\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return 2**(tower(n-1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "16\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t2 = tower(2)\n",
    "print(t2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "65536\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t3 = tower(3)\n",
    "print(t3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
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     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t4 = tower(4)\n",
    "print(t4)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "19729"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(str(t4))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def towerf(n):\n",
    "    if n==0:\n",
    "        return 2.0\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return 2.0**(tower(n-1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "65536.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "towerf(3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "OverflowError",
     "evalue": "(34, 'Numerical result out of range')",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mOverflowError\u001b[0m                             Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-51-b54e961ac3fe>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mtowerf\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m4\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-49-df18eed9ac32>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36mtowerf\u001b[0;34m(n)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m         \u001b[0;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m2.0\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      4\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32melse\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 5\u001b[0;31m         \u001b[0;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m2.0\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m**\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtower\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m-\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m1\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mOverflowError\u001b[0m: (34, 'Numerical result out of range')"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "towerf(4)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "In other words, float just throws up its hands and gives up."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**You are required** to know that integers are infinite precision in Python\n",
    "and floats aren’t, by default, and e.g. predict the behaviour of the two\n",
    "tower functions above. <br>\n",
    "\n",
    "If you want to know why you can read it in this link <br>\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/floatingpoint.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#from mpmath import *\n",
    "#mp.dps = 50; mp.pretty = True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "dps Set precision"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 72,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from mpmath import *"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#fdiv(7,3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "mpf('3.1415926535897931')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 74,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "+pi"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"assignment\"></a>\n",
    "\n",
    "# Assignment\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "900"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 60,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "width = 20\n",
    "height = 5*9\n",
    "width * height"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Parallel assignments"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "width, height = height, width + height"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "45 65\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(width,height)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Short-hand notation for parallel assignments"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 0 0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = y = z = 0 # Zero x, y and z\n",
    "print(x,y,z)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 1 0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "y=1\n",
    "print(x,y,z)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = 0 = y = z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"floatingpoint\"></a>\n",
    "# Floating point\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1e-323"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 69,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "1.0e-323"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "mpf('1.0e-324')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 70,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "power(10,-324)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "mpf('9.9999999999999997e-326')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 71,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "power(10,-325)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Further arithmetic operations"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 75,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "4 % 3 #Remainder"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Unlike C or C++, Python's modulo operator (%) always return a number having the same sign as the denominator (divisor). Your expression yields 3 because"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 1,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "-4 % 3 #  (3*-2)+2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 2,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "-4//3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The reason is 4//3 is -2  <br>\n",
    "if **x/y = q** and the reminder is **r** <br>\n",
    "\n",
    "(y x q)+r=x  <br>\n",
    "(3 x-2)+2=-4\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 3,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(3*-2)+2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "4//-3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 18,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "4 % -3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 19,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(-3 *-2)+(-2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "-4 % -3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.2999999999999998"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 30,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "3.9 % 1.3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.2999999999999998"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "3.8999999999999998 % 1.3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.5909090909090908"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 28,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "7.0 / 4.4"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "7.0 // 4.4 #Division and Floor"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"complexnumbers\"></a>\n",
    "# Complex Numbers\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(-1+0j)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 1,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "1j * complex(0,1) #Imaginary numbers have the suffix j."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(6.123233995736766e-17+1j)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 3,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    " #  (3*-2)+2complex(-1,0) ** 0.5 #arithmetic"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "(1.5+0.5j)\n",
      "2.0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a=1.5+0.5j\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "print(a.real + a.imag)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(3+4j)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 5,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "3 + 4j"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Absolute value is actually the distance between a given number and 0. If you think of a complex number as a two-dimensional tuple (for real and imaginary parts, respectively), you have, let's say:\n",
    "\n",
    "3 + 4i (or 3 + 4j in Python)\n",
    "\n",
    "Now, the distance is the square root of the sums of squares, so:\n",
    "\n",
    "√(3² + 4²) = √(9 + 16) = √(25) = 5.0"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5.0"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 6,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "abs(3 + 4j)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"bitoperations\"></a>\n",
    "# Bit operations\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 88,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "65536"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 88,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "1 << 16 #Returns x with the bits shifted to the left by y places (and new bits on the right-hand-side are zeros)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 89,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0b1\n",
      "0b10000000000000000\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 89,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(bin(1))\n",
    "print(bin(1<<16))\n",
    "type(bin(1<<16))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Leading Zero"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A leading zero is any 0 digit that comes before the first nonzero digit <br>\n",
    "What to keep leading zeroes? Use format instead bit"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'0b1111111'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "bin(127)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'0b01111111'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 24,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "format(127, '#010b')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "& Does a \"bitwise and\". Each bit of the output is 1 if the corresponding bit of x AND of y is 1, otherwise it's 0"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "126"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "254 & 127"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 91,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0b11111110\n",
      "0b1111111\n",
      "0b1111110\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(bin(254))\n",
    "print(bin(127))\n",
    "print(bin(126))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "| Does a \"bitwise or\". Each bit of the output is 0 if the corresponding bit of x AND of y is 0, otherwise it's 1."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 92,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "255"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 92,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "254 | 127"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 93,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0b11111110\n",
      "0b1111111\n",
      "0b11111111\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(bin(254))\n",
    "print(bin(127))\n",
    "print(bin(255))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "^ Does a \"bitwise exclusive or\". Each bit of the output is the same as the corresponding bit in x if that bit in y is 0, and it's the complement of the bit in x if that bit in y is 1."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 94,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "129"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 94,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "254 ^ 127 #xor (^)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0b11111110\n",
      "0b01111111\n",
      "0b10000001\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(bin(254))\n",
    "print(format(127, '#010b'))\n",
    "print(bin(129))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "~ Returns the complement of x - the number you get by switching each 1 for a 0 and each 0 for a 1. This is the same as -x - 1"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-255"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 28,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "~254 # - 254 - 1"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 96,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "-1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 96,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "~0"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0b0\n",
      "0b1\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(bin(0))\n",
    "print(bin(1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"string\"></a>\n",
    "# String\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Single- and double-quotes can be used"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 98,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 98,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(\"Hello world\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "str"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 32,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type('Python tutorial')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Escape-Sequences\n",
    "\\\\\\ backslash <br>\n",
    "\\’ single quote <br>\n",
    "\\\\\" double quote <br>\n",
    "\\t tab <br>\n",
    "\\n newline <br>\n",
    "\\r carriage return <br>\n",
    "\\b backspace <br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Multi-line string"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "This is a rather long string containing\n",
      " several lines of text as you would do in C.\n",
      " Whitespace at the beginning of the line issignificant.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (\"This is a rather long string containing\\n several lines of text as you would do in C.\\n Whitespace at the beginning of the line is\\\n",
    "significant.\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "\n",
      "Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]\n",
      "-h\n",
      "Display this usage message\n",
      "-H hostname\n",
      "Hostname to connect to\n",
      "\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (\"\"\"\n",
    "Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]\n",
    "-h\n",
    "Display this usage message\n",
    "-H hostname\n",
    "Hostname to connect to\n",
    "\"\"\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Raw strings"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello! \n",
      "\"How are you?\"\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (\"Hello! \\n\\\"How are you?\\\"\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello! \\n\\\"How are you?\\\"\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (r\"Hello! \\n\\\"How are you?\\\"\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Unicode"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "b'\\\\u06a9'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = \"ک\"\n",
    "x.encode(\"unicode_escape\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 57,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "ک\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(u'\\u06a9')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 58,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "a b\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (u\"a\\u0020b\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 59,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'l'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 59,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"[-2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## String operations"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "|Input             | Output           | Operation\n",
    "|------------------|------------------|----------------------|\n",
    "|\"hello\"+\"world\"   | \"helloworld\"     | # concat.     <br>   |      \n",
    "|\"hello\"*3         | \"hellohellohello\"| # repetition<br>     |    \n",
    "|\"hello\"[0]        | \"h\"              | # indexing<br>       |  \n",
    "|\"hello\"[-1]       | \"o\"              | # (from end)<br>     |    \n",
    "|\"hello\"[1:4]      | \"ell\"            | # slicing<br>        | \n",
    "|len(\"hello\")      | 5                | # size<br>           |   \n",
    "|\"hello\" < \"jello\" | True             | # comparison<br>     |    \n",
    "|\"e\" in \"hello\"    | True             | # search<br>         |\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'helloworld'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 60,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"+\"world\"  # concat."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'hellohellohello'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 61,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"*3  # repetition"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'h'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 62,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"[0]  # indexing"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'o'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 64,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"[-1] # (from end)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'ell'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 65,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\"[1:4]  # slicing"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(\"hello\")  # size"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 69,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"hello\" < \"jello\"  # comparison"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 70,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"e\" in \"hello\" # search"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"list\"></a>\n",
    "# List\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "Lists are *mutable arrays*"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "a = [99, \"bottles of water\", [\"on\", \"the\", \"wall\"]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 33,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[99, 'bottles of water', ['on', 'the', 'wall']]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 33,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<class 'int'>\n",
      "<class 'str'>\n",
      "<class 'list'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(type(a[0]))\n",
    "print(type(a[1]))\n",
    "print(type(a[2]))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "String operations work on lists"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "b= ['a','b','c','d']\n",
    "c= ['e','f']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "b+c"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['e', 'f', 'e', 'f', 'e', 'f']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "c*3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 104,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'a'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 104,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a[0]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['on', 'the', 'wall']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 43,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a[-1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['bottles of water', ['on', 'the', 'wall']]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 44,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a[1:]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 45,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "len(a)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Elements and segments can be modified."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "a[0]=98"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[98, 'bottles of water', ['on', 'the', 'wall']]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 47,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "del a[-1]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[98, 'bottles of water']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['bottles of water']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a[1:2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "b[1:3]=['z','t','u','v']"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 52,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['a', 'z', 't', 'u', 'v', 'd']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 52,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "b"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 92,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "range(0, 5)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f = range(5)\n",
    "print(f)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 90,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 90,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(f)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 79,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "4\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for n in f:\n",
    "    print(n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 93,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g = list(f)\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 94,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.append(5)\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 95,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.pop()\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 96,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[42, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.insert(0,42)\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 97,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[42, 0, 1, 2, 42, 3, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.insert(4,42)\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 100,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "42"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 100,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.pop(4)\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 101,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[42, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 102,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 42]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.reverse()\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 103,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 42]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "g.sort()\n",
    "print(g)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 105,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['1', '0']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = ['0','1' ]\n",
    "a.reverse()\n",
    "print(a)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 108,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(['0','1' ].reverse()) # Here, [’0’,’1’] is reversed and garbage-collected!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 109,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<list_reverseiterator at 0x207c672d668>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 109,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "reversed(['0','1' ]) #in memory "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 111,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['1', '0']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 111,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(reversed(['0','1' ])) # Force evaluation"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 112,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['0', '1']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 112,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sorted(reversed(['0','1']))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 115,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 0]\n",
      "<class 'list'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = [0,1]\n",
    "a.reverse()\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "print(type(a))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 124,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<list_reverseiterator object at 0x00000207C673FA90>\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "list_reverseiterator"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 124,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = [0,1]\n",
    "a = reversed(a)\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "type(a)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 125,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 0]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 125,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(a) # Force evaluation"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 127,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "can only concatenate str (not \"list\") to str",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[1;32m<ipython-input-127-ca471c1f29ad>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[1;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m      1\u001b[0m \u001b[0ma\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m=\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m[\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m99\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[1;34m\"bottles of water\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m[\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m\"on\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[1;34m\"the\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[1;34m\"wall\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m]\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m]\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m----> 2\u001b[1;33m \u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m[\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m1\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m]\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m+\u001b[0m\u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m[\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m]\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: can only concatenate str (not \"list\") to str"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = [99, \"bottles of water\", [\"on\", \"the\", \"wall\"]]\n",
    "a[1]+a[2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 142,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['bottles of water', 'on', 'the', 'wall']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 142,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a[1:2]+a[2] #a[1:2] return a list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 151,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'bottles of water on the wall'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 151,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "' '.join(a[1:2]+a[2]) # We are joining two list with space"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 152,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'bottles of water#on#the#wall'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 152,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'#'.join(a[1:2]+a[2])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"booleans\"></a>\n",
    "# Booleans\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 163,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "zero is true\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "if 0:\n",
    "    print(\"zero is true\")\n",
    "else:\n",
    "    print(\"zero is false\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 160,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Empty string is false\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "if \"\":\n",
    "    print(\"Empty string is true\")\n",
    "else:\n",
    "    print(\"Empty string is false\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 161,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Empty list is false\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "if []:\n",
    "    print(\"Empty list is true\")\n",
    "else:\n",
    "    print(\"Empty list is false\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 144,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 144,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[]==[]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 145,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 145,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[]is[] #is operator checks whether both the operands refer to the same object or not"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 146,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 146,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "5 is 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 147,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 147,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"a\" is \"fd\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "[] == []"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "[] is []  #is checks for object identity"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 162,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 162,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a =10;\n",
    "b =15;\n",
    "c =2;\n",
    "b =5\n",
    "a < b == c > d \n",
    "#TRUE == FALSE\n",
    "#Comparisons can be chained like this"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 165,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 165,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "not True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 167,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 167,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "True and True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 168,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 168,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "True or False"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 170,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'Me'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 170,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"\" or \"Me\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "|Operation|Result|priority|\n",
    "|---------|------|----------------------|\n",
    "|x or y  | if x is false, then y, else x |(1)|\n",
    "|x and y |if x is false, then x, else y  |(2)|\n",
    "|not x   |if x is false, then True, else False |(3)|\n",
    "\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#boolean-operations-and-or-not"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"while\"></a>\n",
    "# While\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "Print all Fibonacci numbers up to 100"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 171,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "5\n",
      "8\n",
      "13\n",
      "21\n",
      "34\n",
      "55\n",
      "89\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a, b = 0, 1\n",
    "while b <= 100:\n",
    "    print (b)\n",
    "    a, b = b, a+b"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Comparison operators: == < > <= >= !="
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 173,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "5\n",
      "8\n",
      "13\n",
      "21\n",
      "34\n",
      "55\n",
      "89\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a, b = 0, 1\n",
    "while b <= 100: print (b); a,b = b, a+b #online while"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"if\"></a>\n",
    "# If\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "**elif** instead of else if to avoid further indentations."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 174,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Please enter an integer: 10\n",
      "Sign is Plus\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = int(input(\"Please enter an integer: \"))\n",
    "if x < 0:\n",
    "    \n",
    "    print('Sign is Minus')\n",
    "elif x == 0:\n",
    "    print('Sign is Zero')\n",
    "elif x > 0:\n",
    "    print('Sign is Plus')\n",
    "else:\n",
    "    print('Should never see that')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"for\"></a>\n",
    "# For\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 175,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "cat 3\n",
      "window 6\n",
      "defenestrate 12\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']\n",
    "for x in a:\n",
    "    print(x, len(x))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The iterated sequence must not be modified in the body of the loop!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#a = ['Hi','De']\n",
    "#for x in a: print(x,end=' '); a.extend(a[0:1])\n",
    "# This loops forever. Run it and see. Why?\n",
    "#a = ['Hi','De']\n",
    "#for x in a: print(x,end=' '); a.extend(a[0:])\n",
    "# This may crash your machine. Why?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "We can force creation of a copy first, e.g. using segment a[:] or list."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 178,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hi De "
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = ['Hi','De']\n",
    "for x in list(a):  #We made a copy here by using lsit(a)\n",
    "    print(x,end=' ') #end define the ending of the print function\n",
    "    a.extend(a[0:]) #Every iteration we changed the a in place so we will have 8 elements"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 179,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": false
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['Hi', 'De', 'Hi', 'De', 'Hi', 'De', 'Hi', 'De']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(a)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Why 8 elements?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"rangefunction\"></a>\n",
    "# Range function\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 180,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range(0, 10)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 180,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "range(10)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 181,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range(0, 10)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 181,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "range(0, 10) # Range from 0 unless otherwise stated"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 182,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 182,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(range(10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 183,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 183,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 184,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range(2, 4)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 184,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "range(10)[2:4]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Slicing doesn’t trigger evaluation!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 185,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[2, 3]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 185,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(10)[2:4])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    " List triggers evaluation"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 186,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[2, 3]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 186,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(10))[2:4] #inefficient"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 187,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "range(0, 100000000)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 187,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "range(10**8)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 188,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[2, 3]\n",
      "6.350997686386108\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import time \n",
    "start = time.time()\n",
    "a = list(range(10**8))[2:4]\n",
    "end =  time.time()\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "print(end-start)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 189,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[2, 3]\n",
      "0.0\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "start = time.time()\n",
    "list(range(10**8)[2:4])\n",
    "end =  time.time()\n",
    "print(a)\n",
    "print(end-start)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color='red'>You are expected to </font>understand that range does not compute a range, it creates a computation for a range, which may or may not be triggered.\n",
    "\n",
    "<font color='red'>You are expected to</font> recognise the implications, e.g. for efficiency."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 190,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 190,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 191,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 191,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(5, 10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 192,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 3, 6, 9]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 192,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(0, 10, 3))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 193,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[-10, -40, -70]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 193,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(-10, -100, -30))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 194,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 194,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(-10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 195,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 195,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(0,-10,-1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Typical application: iteration over the indices of an array."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 196,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 Mary\n",
      "1 had\n",
      "2 a\n",
      "3 little\n",
      "4 lamb\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']\n",
    "for i in range(len(a)):\n",
    "    print(i, a[i])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Another way"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 197,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Mary\n",
      "had\n",
      "a\n",
      "little\n",
      "lamb\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']\n",
    "for i in a:\n",
    "    print(i)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"forwhile\"></a>\n",
    "# For-/While-loops: break, continue, else\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "- break (as in C), terminates the enclosing loop immediately.\n",
    "- continue (as in C), jumps to the next iteration of the enclosing loop.\n",
    "- The else-part of a loop will only be executed, if the loop hasn’t been terminated using break construct"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 199,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "2 is a prime number\n",
      "3 is a prime number\n",
      "4 equals 2 * 2\n",
      "5 is a prime number\n",
      "6 equals 2 * 3\n",
      "7 is a prime number\n",
      "8 equals 2 * 4\n",
      "9 equals 3 * 3\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for n in range(2, 10):\n",
    "    for x in range(2, n):\n",
    "        if n % x == 0:\n",
    "            print (n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)\n",
    "             \n",
    "    else: # loop completed, no factor\n",
    "        print (n, 'is a prime number')\n",
    "        "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"empty\"></a>\n",
    "# The empty expression\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "The **pass** statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any command or code to execute."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "#while True:\n",
    "    #pass # Busy ... wait for keyboard interrupt"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"none\"></a>\n",
    "# The None value\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "None is handy for implementing partial functions. Suppose you want to implement division division; what to do with divide-by-zero?\n",
    "\n",
    "You could raise an exception . . . or just return a None value."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def mydiv(x,y):\n",
    "    if y==0: \n",
    "        return None;\n",
    "    else: \n",
    "        return (x/y)\n",
    "    # output: \"None\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(mydiv(1,0))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# A day in the life of Superman:\n",
    "\n",
    "superman_todo={1:\"Get out bed\",2:\"Save World\",3:\"Breakfast\"}\n",
    "print(superman_todo.get(4)) # 4th item of Superman’s todo?\n",
    "# output: \"None\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"procedures\"></a>\n",
    "# Procedures\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)\n",
    "\n",
    "Procedures are defined using the key word def.\n",
    "\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n\n",
    "    \"\"\"Print a Fibonacci series up to n.\"\"\"\n",
    "    a, b = 0, 1\n",
    "    while b < n:\n",
    "        print (b)\n",
    "        a, b = b, a+b"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "5\n",
      "8\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fib(10)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "5\n",
      "8\n",
      "None\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print (fib(10)) #The return value is None"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- Variables n, a, b are local.\n",
    "- The return value is None (hence, it is a procedure rather than a function)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## A procedure as an object\n",
    "Procedures are values in-themselves."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<function __main__.fib(n)>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fib"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "f = fib"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "5\n",
      "8\n",
      "13\n",
      "21\n",
      "34\n",
      "55\n",
      "89\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f(100)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"onparameters\"></a>\n",
    "# On parameters\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "Assignment to parameters of a function are local."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['not', 'empty']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def bla(l):\n",
    "    l = []\n",
    "    \n",
    "l = ['not', 'empty']\n",
    "bla(l)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['not', 'empty', '!']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def exclamate(l):\n",
    "    l.append('!')\n",
    "\n",
    "exclamate(l)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"globalvariables\"></a>\n",
    "# Global Variables\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "The access to a global variable has to be explicitly declared."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def clear_l():\n",
    "    global l\n",
    "    l = []\n",
    "    \n",
    "l = ['not', 'empty']\n",
    "clear_l()\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"returnvalues\"></a>\n",
    "# Return values\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- The return construct immediately terminates the procedure\n",
    "- The return ...value... construct also returns a concrete result value."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def fib2(n):\n",
    "    \"\"\"Return the Fibonacci series up to n.\"\"\"\n",
    "    result = []\n",
    "    a, b = 0, 1\n",
    "    while b < n:\n",
    "        result.append(b) # see below\n",
    "        a, b = b, a+b\n",
    "    return result\n",
    "\n",
    "f100 = fib2(100) # call it\n",
    "f100 # write the result"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"docstring\"></a>\n",
    "# Doc-strings\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def my_function():\n",
    "    \"\"\"Do nothing, but document it.\n",
    "    No, really, it doesn’t do anything.\n",
    "    \"\"\"\n",
    "    pass"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "- The first line typically contains usage information (starting with an upper-case letter, and terminated with a full stop).\n",
    "- After that several more paragraphs can be added, explaining details of the usage information.\n",
    "- This information can be accessed using .__doc__ or help constructs"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "my_function.__doc__"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "help(my_function)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"anonymousfunctions\"></a>\n",
    "# Anonymous Functions\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- A function can be passed as an expression to another function"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<function __main__.<lambda>(x, y)>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 43,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "lambda x, y: x # in ML: fn x => fn y => x # In OCaml fun x y-> x        "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This is a factory-pattern for a function incrementing a value:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def make_incrementor(n):\n",
    "    return lambda x: x + n\n",
    "# in ML: fn x => x+n\n",
    "# in OcamL: fun x n -> x+n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "f = make_incrementor(42)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "42"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f(0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 47,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "43"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 47,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f(1)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Functions are compared using the address of their representation in memory:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 48,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(lambda x:x)==(lambda x:x) # Make 2 functions, compare addresses"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 49,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = (lambda x:x) # Make 1 function"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 50,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x == x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 51,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = [lambda x:x]*2 #List of a function  * 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "This tells us that *2 generates a link rather than trigger a copy."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"morelistoperations\"></a>\n",
    "# More list operations\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Extend\n",
    "add l2 to the end of the list l."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 61,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 2, 2, 5, 4, 3, 3]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l=[1,2,2]\n",
    "l2=[5,4,3,3]\n",
    "l.extend(l2)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 60,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 2, 2, [5, 4, 3]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l=[1,2,2]\n",
    "l2=[5,4,3]\n",
    "l.append(l2)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can see the difference between append and extend. "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Remove\n",
    "removes the first instance of x in l. Error, if x not in l."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 62,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 2, 2, 5, 4, 3]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l.remove(3)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Read-only"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 63,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 63,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l.index(2) #returns the position of x in l. Error, if x not in l."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 64,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "2"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 64,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l.count(2) #returns the number of occurrences of x in l."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 65,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 65,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sorted(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 66,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[3, 4, 5, 2, 2, 1]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 66,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(reversed(l)) #returns an iterator, which lists the elements in l in reverse order."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 67,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 2, 2, 5, 4, 3]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 67,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Usage of lists\n",
    "- Lists can be used to model a stack: append and pop().\n",
    "- Lists can be used to model a queue: append und pop(0).\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 68,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 2, 2, 5, 4, 3]\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 68,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(l)\n",
    "l.pop()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 69,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[1, 2, 2, 5, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 70,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 70,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l.pop(0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 71,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[2, 2, 5, 4]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"higherorderfunctionsonlists\"></a>\n",
    "# Higher-order functions on Lists\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Filter \n",
    "returns a sequence, whose elements are those of sequence that fulfill the predicate"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 72,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "d= filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, range(10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 73,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 73,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(d)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Map\n",
    "applies the function f to every element of sequence and returns it as a new sequence."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 74,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 74,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "m =map(lambda x: x*x*x, range(10))\n",
    "list(m)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 75,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101,\n",
       " 101]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 75,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "n= map(lambda x,y: x+y, range(1,51), range(100,50,-1))\n",
    "list(n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Reduce\n",
    "reduce(f, [a1,a2,a3,...,an]) computes f(...f(f(a1,a2),a3),...,an)\n",
    "\n",
    "Reduce is a really useful function for performing some computation on a list and returning the result. It applies a rolling computation to sequential pairs of values in a list. For example, if you wanted to compute the product of a list of integers.\n",
    "\n",
    "functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]) cumulatively performs an operation on all the iterable’s elements and, therefore, can’t be applied to infinite iterables. func must be a function that takes two elements and returns a single value. functools.reduce() takes the first two elements A and B returned by the iterator and calculates func(A, B). It then requests the third element, C, calculates func(func(A, B), C), combines this result with the fourth element returned, and continues until the iterable is exhausted. If the iterable returns no values at all, a TypeError exception is raised. If the initial value is supplied, it’s used as a starting point and func(initial_value, A) is the first calculation.\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/howto/functional.html\n",
    "\n",
    "Apply function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of iterable, from left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a single value. For example, reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) calculates ((((1+2)+3)+4)+5). The left argument, x, is the accumulated value and the right argument, y, is the update value from the iterable. If the optional initializer is present, it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation, and serves as a default when the iterable is empty. If initializer is not given and iterable contains only one item, the first item is returned.\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.reduce"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 76,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "24\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "product = 1\n",
    "list = [1, 2, 3, 4]\n",
    "for num in list:\n",
    "    product = product * num\n",
    "print(product)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 77,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "24\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from functools import reduce\n",
    "product = reduce((lambda x, y: x * y), [1, 2, 3, 4])\n",
    "print(product)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"listcomprehensions\"></a>\n",
    "# List comprehensions\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "- More readable notation for combinations of map and filter.\n",
    "- Motivated by set comprehensions in mathematical notation.\n",
    "- [ e(x,y) for x in seq1 if p(x) for y in seq2 ]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 81,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[4, 8, 12]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 81,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "vec = [2, 4, 6]\n",
    "[2*x for x in vec]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 82,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[2, 4, 6]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(vec)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 83,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[12, 18]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 83,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[3*x for x in vec if x > 3]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 84,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[(2, 4), (4, 16), (6, 36)]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 84,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[(x, x**2) for x in vec]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 85,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[8, 6, -18, 16, 12, -36, 24, 18, -54]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 85,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "vec1 = [2, 4, 6]\n",
    "vec2 = [4, 3, -9]\n",
    "[x*y for x in vec1 for y in vec2]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"deletion\"></a>\n",
    "# Deletion\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 86,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]\n",
    "del a[0]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 87,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 87,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 88,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "del a[2:4]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 89,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 89,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "del a[:]\n",
    "a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 90,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "del a"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"tuples\"></a>\n",
    "# Tuples\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "They work exactly like lists, except that tuples can’t be changed in place (they’re immutable) and are usually written as a series of items in parentheses, not square brackets. Although they don’t support as many methods, tuples share most of their properties with lists."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12345"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 2,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t[0]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(12345, 54321, 'hello!')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 3,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) # Tuples may be nested:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 5,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "u"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x, y, z = t"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "12345"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 7,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'hello!'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "z"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "empty = ()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "('hello',)\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "singleton = 'hello', # trailing comma\n",
    "print(singleton)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"sets\"></a>\n",
    "# Sets\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- set(l) generates a set, formed out of the elements in the list l.\n",
    "- set(l) generates a frozenset (an immutable set), formed out of\n",
    "- the elements in the list l. More on this in Slide 71.\n",
    "- list(s) generates a list, formed out of the elements in the set s.\n",
    "- tuple(s) generates a tuple (an immutable list), formed out of . . . you know the rest.\n",
    "- x in s tests for set membership\n",
    "- Operations: - (difference), | (union), & (intersection), ^ (xor).\n",
    "- for v in s iterates over the set (sorted!).\n",
    "\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3.8/library/stdtypes.html#set-types-set-frozenset"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color=\"red\"> Warning: list, set and tuple treat string arguments as lists of chars.</font>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 97,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = \"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 98,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['S',\n",
       " 'u',\n",
       " 'p',\n",
       " 'e',\n",
       " 'r',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'f',\n",
       " 'r',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'g',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 's',\n",
       " 't',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'e',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'p',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'd',\n",
       " 'o',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'o',\n",
       " 'u',\n",
       " 's']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 98,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 99,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('S',\n",
       " 'u',\n",
       " 'p',\n",
       " 'e',\n",
       " 'r',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'f',\n",
       " 'r',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'g',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 's',\n",
       " 't',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'e',\n",
       " 'x',\n",
       " 'p',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'a',\n",
       " 'l',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'd',\n",
       " 'o',\n",
       " 'c',\n",
       " 'i',\n",
       " 'o',\n",
       " 'u',\n",
       " 's')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 99,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tuple(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 100,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'x', 'i', 'f', 'e', 'S', 'c', 'g', 'd', 'p', 'l', 'u', 'a', 'r', 's', 't', 'o'}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "ss= set(x)\n",
    "print(ss)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 102,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "frozenset({'x', 'i', 'f', 'e', 'S', 'c', 'g', 'd', 'p', 'l', 'u', 'a', 'r', 's', 't', 'o'})\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fs=frozenset(x)\n",
    "print(fs)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 103,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'a'}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s = {'a','a'}\n",
    "print(s)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"dictionaries\"></a>\n",
    "# Dictionaries\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "Dictionaries are finite maps, hash maps, associative arrays. They represent unordered sets of (key, value) pairs."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 104,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "tel = {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127} # These are\n",
    "tel = dict([('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)]) # equivalent"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 105,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 106,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "4098\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(tel['jack'])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 107,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4099}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel['jack'] = 4099\n",
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 108,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'jack': 4099}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = {'jack': 4098, 'jack': 4099 } # A key may occur at most once\n",
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 109,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = {'jack':4098}\n",
    "del[tel['jack']] # Delete key once\n",
    "print(tel) # output: {}\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 110,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "KeyError",
     "evalue": "'jack'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mKeyError\u001b[0m                                  Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-110-38979074ec0a>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;32mdel\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtel\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'jack'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mKeyError\u001b[0m: 'jack'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "del[tel['jack']]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"deletionmore\"></a>\n",
    "# Deletion + more\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 111,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "tel = {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127}"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 112,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict_keys(['jack', 'guido'])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 112,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel.keys()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 113,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict_values([4098, 4127])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 113,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel.values()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 114,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict_items([('jack', 4098), ('guido', 4127)])"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 114,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel.items()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 115,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[('jack', 4098), ('guido', 4127)]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 115,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(tel.items())"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 116,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[(0, 'jack'), (1, 'guido')]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 116,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(enumerate(tel))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"mutable\"></a>\n",
    "# Mutable vs Immutable Types\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "Python distinguishes between mutable and immutable types. Mutable types have methods to change the value; immutable types don’t.\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#mutable-sequence-types"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color=\"red\">You are expected to know</font> \n",
    "that dictionary hashes must be immutable, \n",
    "and know which types are mutable and which aren’t (and so can’t hash\n",
    "in dictionaries).\n",
    "- **Lists are mutable, strings and tuples are immutable. Thus**:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 338,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "tuple"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 338,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type(()) # immutable"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 339,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 339,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type({})"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 340,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "list"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 340,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "type([])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 341,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'jack': 1234}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = { 'jack': 1234 }# Fine\n",
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 342,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{('jack',): 1234}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = { ('jack',): 1234 } # Fine\n",
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 343,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unhashable type: 'list'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-343-5a36c68a3313>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mtel\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m{\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'jack'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m1234\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m}\u001b[0m \u001b[0;31m# Not fine\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unhashable type: 'list'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = { ['jack']: 1234 } # Not fine"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 344,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unhashable type: 'set'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-344-7a1b487c18aa>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mtel\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m{\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m{\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'jack'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m}\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m1234\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m}\u001b[0m \u001b[0;31m# Not fine\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      2\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtel\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unhashable type: 'set'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tel = { {'jack'}: 1234 } # Not fine\n",
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 345,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "tel = { frozenset(['jack']): 1234 }"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 125,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{frozenset({'jack'}): 1234}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(tel)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 126,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[{()}]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 126,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[{()}] #MU(IM(IM)) List(Dic(Tuple))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 127,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[{}]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 127,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[({})] #MU(IM(IM)) List(Tuple(Dic)))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 128,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unhashable type: 'list'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-128-9d3d259fbfb0>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;34m{\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m}\u001b[0m \u001b[0;31m#IM(MU(IM)) Dic(List(Tuple)))\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unhashable type: 'list'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "{[()]} #IM(MU(IM)) Dic(List(Tuple)))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 129,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "()"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 129,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "((())) "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Mutable vs immutable types\n",
    "set and list have add/append; frozenset and tuple don’t:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 140,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = set([])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 141,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x.add(\"*\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 142,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "{'*'}"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 142,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 143,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = frozenset([])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 144,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "AttributeError",
     "evalue": "'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-144-17a2b1462057>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mx\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0madd\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\"*\"\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.add(\"*\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 145,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = list([])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 146,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x.append(\"*\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 147,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['*']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 147,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 148,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "x = tuple([])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 149,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "AttributeError",
     "evalue": "'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-149-62277a01a92e>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mx\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mappend\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\"*\"\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x.append(\"*\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color=\"red\"> Warning:</font> x={} creates an empty dictionary (not an empty set)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 151,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "set"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 151,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = set([])\n",
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 152,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "dict"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 152,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = {}\n",
    "type(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"looptechniques\"></a>\n",
    "# Loop Techniques\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "- Here are some useful patterns involving loops over dictionaries.\n",
    "- Simultaneous iteration over both keys and elements of a dictionary:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Iteration with Index over list"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 168,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 tic\n",
      "1 tac\n",
      "2 toe\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l = ['tic', 'tac', 'toe']\n",
    "for i, v in enumerate(l):\n",
    "    print (i, v)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Iteration over both keys and elements"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 171,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Kayvan -> 00971\n",
      "Arash -> 0044\n",
      "Rob -> 0044\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dic = {\"Kayvan\":\"00971\",\"Arash\":\"0044\",\"Rob\":\"0044\"}\n",
    "for k,v in dic.items():\n",
    "    print(k,\"->\",v)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Simultaneous iteration over two or more sequences:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 176,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[(0, 'tic'), (1, 'tac'), (2, 'toe')]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 176,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(zip(range(len(l)),l))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 173,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 tic\n",
      "1 tac\n",
      "2 toe\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i, v in zip(range(len(l)),l):\n",
    "    print (i, v)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Iteration in sorted and reversed order:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 177,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "toe\n",
      "tic\n",
      "tac\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for v in reversed(sorted(l)):\n",
    "    print (v)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"comparisonsequences\"></a>\n",
    "# Comparison of sequences and other types\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- Sequences are compared lexicographically, and in a nested way"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 346,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 346,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "() < ('Empty',)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 347,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 347,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "('a', (5, 3), 'c') < ('a', (6,) , 'a')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 185,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 185,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(5,3)<(6,)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "**Warning: The comparison of values of different types doesn’t\n",
    "produce an error. It returns an arbitrary value!**\n",
    "\n",
    "**In slide version it is different.**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 180,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "'<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-180-8d1a435a2b14>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;34m\"1\"\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m<\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"1\" < 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 181,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "'<' not supported between instances of 'tuple' and 'str'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-181-6978d248e23b>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m<\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'\\x00'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: '<' not supported between instances of 'tuple' and 'str'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "() < ('\\x00')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"equalityandidentity\"></a>\n",
    "#  Equality and identity in Python\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "Equality is x == y. Seems simple—but it isn’t. Equality is just a\n",
    "method; we can program ‘equality’ to do anything at all:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 368,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "class Student(): # class equal to everything (thanks to Jared Grubb)\n",
    "    name:\"babir\"\n",
    "    def __eq__(self, other):\n",
    "        print(\"Equality test alert!!!\")\n",
    "        return True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 189,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Equality test alert!!!\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 189,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "Equal() == 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 190,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Equality test alert!!!\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 190,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "Equal() == 6"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Worse, it is possible to silently overwrite the equality methods of\n",
    "familiar datatypes. You cannot be sure what code is actually being\n",
    "called when you call ==.\n",
    "\n",
    "Python has a primitive is; tests identity, cannot be overwritten:\n",
    "\n",
    "This seems simple, right? No, it isn’t. Functions are compared by\n",
    "address not mathematical equality"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 191,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 191,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "Equal() is 7"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 192,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 192,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(lambda x:x) == (lambda x:x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 193,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 193,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(lambda x:x) is (lambda x:x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Also, Python may link substructures rather than copy them:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 198,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[], [], []]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = [[]]*3\n",
    "print(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 199,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[['Ha'], ['Ha'], ['Ha']]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x[0].append(\"Ha\")\n",
    "print(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 200,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[], [], []]\n",
      "[['Ha'], [], []]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = [[],[],[]]\n",
    "print(x)\n",
    "x[0].append(\"Ha\")\n",
    "print(x)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 206,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "False\n",
      "['Gotcha']\n",
      "[]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = []\n",
    "y = []\n",
    "z = x is y\n",
    "x.append(\"Gotcha\")\n",
    "print(z)\n",
    "print(x)\n",
    "print(y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 207,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "True\n",
      "['Gotcha']\n",
      "['Gotcha']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = []\n",
    "y = x\n",
    "z = x is y\n",
    "x.append(\"Gotcha\")\n",
    "print(z)\n",
    "print(x)\n",
    "print(y)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"copyanddeepcopy\"></a>\n",
    "# Copy and Deepcopy\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "**copy.copy** makes a copy with links to original structure;\n",
    "\n",
    "**copy.deepcopy** makes a ‘true’ copy"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 348,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import copy\n",
    "l = [[]]\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 349,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "m = copy.copy(l) #Shallow Copy\n",
    "print(m)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 350,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "n = copy.deepcopy(l)\n",
    "print(n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 351,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "l[0].append(\"Hi\")\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 352,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "l : [['Hi']]\n",
      "m : [['Hi']]\n",
      "n : [[]]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(\"l :\",l)\n",
    "print(\"m :\",m)\n",
    "print(\"n :\",n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 353,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def biglist(n): # create *a lot* of copies of [].\n",
    "    if n==0:\n",
    "        return [[]];\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return biglist(n-1)*(n**n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 354,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "[[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], 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[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []]\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "l = biglist(4)\n",
    "print(l)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 355,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "m1 = l # very fast"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 356,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "m2 = copy.copy(l) # quite fast"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 357,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "m3 = copy.deepcopy(l) # rather slow"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color=\"red\">You are expected </font> to anticipate what happens to m1, m2, and m3 if we\n",
    "execute l[0].append(’Hi’)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"moreonrecursion\"></a>\n",
    "# More on Recursion\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "<font color=\"red\">You are expected to know</font>\n",
    "- Recursion is when a program calls itself. See the notes on Ocaml.\n",
    "- Tail-recursion is when a program calls itself and this is the end of that program’s computation. Therefore, the local state of the program does not need to be stored, and indeed, it can be re-used. Tail-recursion is, in effect, equal to iteration.\n",
    "\n",
    "https://python-course.eu/python3_recursive_functions.php"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Let’s look at four implementations of Fibonacci:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 233,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def fibi(n): # iterative\n",
    "    a, b = 1, 1\n",
    "    for i in range(n):\n",
    "        a, b = b, a+b\n",
    "    return(a)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 234,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 234,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibi(5)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 266,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def fibr(n): # recursive \n",
    "    #print(n,end=' ')\n",
    "    if n==0 or n==1:\n",
    "        return(1)\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        return fibr(n-1)+fibr(n-2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 267,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 "
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 267,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibr(5)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 239,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "memo = { 0:1, 1:1 } # memoised\n",
    "def fibm(n):\n",
    "    if not n in memo:\n",
    "        memo[n] = fibm(n-1)+fibm(n-2)\n",
    "    return memo[n]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "In computing, memoization or memoisation is an optimization technique used primarily to speed up computer programs by storing the results of expensive function calls and returning the cached result when the same inputs occur again.\n",
    "\n",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 240,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 240,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibm(5)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 245,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def fibg(n): # with static local \n",
    "    if not hasattr(fibg, \"memo\"): #has attribute\n",
    "        fibg.memo = { 0:1, 1:1 }\n",
    "    if not n in fibg.memo:\n",
    "        fibg.memo[n]=fibg(n-1)+fibg(n-2)\n",
    "    return fibg.memo[n]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The arguments are an object and a string. The result is True if the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, False if not. (This is implemented by calling getattr(object, name) and seeing whether it raises an AttributeError or not.)\n",
    "\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#hasattr"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 265,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "8"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 265,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibg(5)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<font color=\"red\"> You are expected to understand this.</font>\n",
    "- The iterative fibi works fine.\n",
    "\n",
    "- The recursive fibr works fine but slowwww because: it calls itself recursively twice and recalculates values many times (the call to n-1 will recursively call n-2, again).\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "- The memoised fibm is much faster. You are expected to be able to explain why.\n",
    "\n",
    "The memoised fibg is faster and uses some (non-examinable) fancy\n",
    "programming to keep memo local.\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## even more on recursion"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "the catch: Python has a global limit of 999 on recursive calls. <- this  is in the slide but \n",
    "\n",
    "you can check it by using"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 358,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "3000"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 358,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import sys\n",
    "sys.getrecursionlimit()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 359,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "89"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 359,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibm(10)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 360,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "RecursionError",
     "evalue": "maximum recursion depth exceeded",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mRecursionError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-360-f7b4cee06692>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m5010\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-239-70354720b011>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36mfibm\u001b[0;34m(n)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      2\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mdef\u001b[0m \u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32mif\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mnot\u001b[0m \u001b[0mn\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32min\u001b[0m \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 4\u001b[0;31m         \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m-\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m1\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m+\u001b[0m\u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m-\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      5\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "... last 1 frames repeated, from the frame below ...\n",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-239-70354720b011>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36mfibm\u001b[0;34m(n)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      2\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mdef\u001b[0m \u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32mif\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mnot\u001b[0m \u001b[0mn\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32min\u001b[0m \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 4\u001b[0;31m         \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m=\u001b[0m \u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m-\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m1\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m+\u001b[0m\u001b[0mfibm\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m-\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      5\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[0mmemo\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m[\u001b[0m\u001b[0mn\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m]\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mRecursionError\u001b[0m: maximum recursion depth exceeded"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fibm(5010)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "A justification is that CPython doesn’t optimise tail recursion to re-use the existing stack, so recursive calls in Python are quite memory-hungry.\n",
    "\n",
    "If we’re determined we can work around this, e.g.\n",
    "\n",
    "http://code.activestate.com/recipes/474088/\n",
    "\n",
    "But (IMO) Python should do this automatically."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"modules\"></a>\n",
    "# Modules\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- Every Python file is a module.\n",
    "- import myMod imports module myMod.\n",
    "- The system searches in the current directory and in the PYTHONPATH environment variable.\n",
    "- Access to the module-identifier x is done with myMod.x (both read and write access!).\n",
    "- The code in the module is evaluated, when the module is imported the first time.\n",
    "- Import into the main name-space can be done by\n",
    "- In general it is not advisable to do from myMod import *.\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "from myMod import myFun\n",
    "\n",
    "from yourMod import yourValue as myValue\n",
    "\n",
    "myFun(myValue) # qualification not necessary\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"outputformatting\"></a>\n",
    "# Output Formatting\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "str(v) generates a “machine-readable” string representation of v"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 272,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'4'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 272,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "str(2+2) #generates a “machine-readable” string representation of v"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 273,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "\"'Hi'\""
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 273,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "repr(\"Hi\") #generates a representation that is readable to the interpreter. Strings are escaped where necessary."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an object with the same value when passed to eval(), otherwise the representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object together with additional information often including the name and address of the object. A class can control what this function returns for its instances by defining a __repr__() method.\n",
    "\n",
    "https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#repr"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 280,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "'Adam'\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "class Person:\n",
    "    name = 'Adam'\n",
    "\n",
    "    def __repr__(self):\n",
    "        return repr(self.name)\n",
    "    \n",
    "\n",
    "print(repr(Person()))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 281,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "***************Hello\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "str = \"Hello\"\n",
    "print (str.rjust(20, '*'))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 282,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Hello***************\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "str = \"Hello\"\n",
    "print (str.ljust(20, '*'))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 283,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "*******Hello********\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "str = \"Hello\"\n",
    "print (str.center(20, '*'))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 284,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "000000000000000Hello\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "str = \"Hello\"\n",
    "print (str.zfill(20))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 285,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'-0003.14'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 285,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'-3.14'.zfill(8)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "#### Dictionary-Formating:\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 292,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Jack: 4098; Jill: 4127\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "table = {'Jill': 4127, 'Jack': 4098 }\n",
    "print ('Jack: %(Jack)d; Jill: %(Jill)d' % table)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 297,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Jack:4098 | Jill:4127\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "table = {'Jill': 4127, 'Jack': 4098 }\n",
    "print ('Jack:{d[Jack]} | Jill:{d[Jill]}'.format(d=table))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 291,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "4098\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print ('%(Jack)d' % table)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 301,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'This is the first is 1 item and this is the second item 2.'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 301,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'This is the first is {} item and this is the second item {}.'.format(1, 2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"exceptions\"></a>\n",
    "# Exceptions\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "- Exceptions can be caught using a try...except... expression.\n",
    "- It is possible to catch several exceptions in one except block: except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError): pass"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 361,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Please enter an integer: \n",
      "Not a valid number. Try again...\n",
      "Please enter an integer: \n",
      "Not a valid number. Try again...\n",
      "Please enter an integer: e\n",
      "Not a valid number. Try again...\n",
      "Please enter an integer: 2\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "while True:\n",
    "    try:\n",
    "        x = int(input(\"Please enter an integer: \"))\n",
    "        break\n",
    "    except ValueError:\n",
    "        print (\"Not a valid number. Try again...\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "### Several exception handling routines"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 362,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Could not convert data to an integer.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import sys\n",
    "try:\n",
    "    f = open('myfile.txt')\n",
    "    s = f.readline()\n",
    "    i = int(s.strip())\n",
    "except IOError as strerror:\n",
    "    print (\"I/O error: %s\" %  strerror)\n",
    "except ValueError:\n",
    "    print (\"Could not convert data to an integer.\")\n",
    "except:\n",
    "    print (\"Unexpected error:\", sys.exc_info()[0])\n",
    "    raise\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Exceptions: else\n",
    "If no exception was raised, the optional else block would be executed."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 363,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "-f has 1 lines\n",
      "/home/kayvan/.local/share/jupyter/runtime/kernel-1f651350-6648-4b23-af52-1ad2e83fdd67.json has 1 lines\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for arg in sys.argv[1:]:\n",
    "    try:\n",
    "        f = open('myfile.txt')\n",
    "    except IOError:\n",
    "        print ('cannot open', arg)\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        print (arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')\n",
    "        f.close()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Raising Exceptions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- raise Ex[, info] triggers an exception.\n",
    "- raise triggers the most recently caught exception again and passes it up the dynamic call hierarchy."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 309,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "An exception flew by!\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "ename": "NameError",
     "evalue": "HiThere",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-309-e6d688cc7603>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      1\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mtry\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 2\u001b[0;31m     \u001b[0;32mraise\u001b[0m \u001b[0mNameError\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'HiThere'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mexcept\u001b[0m \u001b[0mNameError\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      4\u001b[0m     \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'An exception flew by!'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      5\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;32mraise\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mNameError\u001b[0m: HiThere"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "try:\n",
    "    raise NameError('HiThere')\n",
    "except NameError:\n",
    "    print ('An exception flew by!')\n",
    "    raise"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Clean-up"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "The code in the **finally** block will be executed at the end of the current try block,\n",
    "\n",
    "no matter whether execution has finished\n",
    "successfully or raised an exception."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 310,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Goodbye, world!\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "ename": "KeyboardInterrupt",
     "evalue": "",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mKeyboardInterrupt\u001b[0m                         Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-310-0b9aca623e1c>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      1\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mtry\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 2\u001b[0;31m     \u001b[0;32mraise\u001b[0m \u001b[0mKeyboardInterrupt\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mfinally\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      4\u001b[0m     \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m'Goodbye, world!'\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mKeyboardInterrupt\u001b[0m: "
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "try:\n",
    "    raise KeyboardInterrupt\n",
    "finally:\n",
    "    print ('Goodbye, world!')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Exceptions: All Elements"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 311,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def divide(x, y):\n",
    "    try:\n",
    "        result = x / y\n",
    "    except ZeroDivisionError:\n",
    "        print (\"division by zero!\")\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        print (\"result is\", result)\n",
    "    finally:\n",
    "        print (\"executing finally clause\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 312,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "result is 0.75\n",
      "executing finally clause\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "divide(3,4)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 313,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "division by zero!\n",
      "executing finally clause\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "divide(3,0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Pre-defined clean-up\n",
    "- **\"with\"** triggers automatic clean-up if an exception is raised\n",
    "- In the example below, the file is automatically closed.\n",
    "- Using **with** is good style, because it guarantees that there are no unnecessary, open file handles around."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 314,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. In a nunc vitae magna accumsan aliquet. Praesent est massa, porta ut aliquet et, accumsan eget leo. Proin consectetur placerat tellus. Proin mollis justo sit amet dolor elementum tempus. Mauris quis mollis arcu. Suspendisse sagittis porta viverra. Ut bibendum eget nulla semper pharetra. Maecenas at nulla id justo ultricies auctor et ut risus. Praesent rhoncus velit vel dignissim vehicula. Aenean euismod magna vitae vulputate varius. Sed eleifend nunc dictum, lacinia metus eu, pulvinar nunc. Morbi at tellus pharetra, sagittis ligula ullamcorper, malesuada massa. Praesent eu mauris pharetra, malesuada urna sit amet, maximus libero. Nunc sagittis consequat molestie. Donec finibus enim hendrerit dolor fringilla, sit amet viverra elit imperdiet. Morbi dictum in lacus ac maximus.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "page =\"\"\n",
    "with open(\"myfile.txt\") as f:\n",
    "    for line in f:\n",
    "        page+=line\n",
    "        print (line)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 315,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'/home/kayvan/Dropbox/Teaching/F28PL/2019/Python/Notebook/F28PLPython'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 315,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import os\n",
    "os.getcwd()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"iteratorsindetail\"></a>\n",
    "\n",
    "# Iterators in detail\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "- it = iter(obj) returns an iterator for the object obj.\n",
    "- it.next() returns the next element\n",
    "- or raises a StopIteration exception."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 319,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "apple\n",
      "banana\n",
      "cherry\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "x = iter([\"apple\", \"banana\", \"cherry\"])\n",
    "print(next(x))\n",
    "print(next(x))\n",
    "print(next(x))\n",
    "#print(next(x))\n",
    "\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"generators\"></a>\n",
    "# Generators\n",
    "\n",
    "[Back to TOC](#toc)<br>\n",
    "\n",
    "A method, containing a **_yield_** expression, is a **generator**.\n",
    "\n",
    "Generator functions are like normal functions in most respects, and in fact are coded with normal def statements. However, when created, they are compiled specially into an object that supports the iteration protocol. \n",
    "\n",
    "The chief code difference between generator and normal functions is that a generator yields a value, rather than returning one—the yield statement suspends the function and sends a value back to the caller, but retains enough state to enable the function to resume from where it left off. When resumed, the function continues execution immediately after the last yield run. From the function’s perspective, this allows its code to produce a series of values over time, rather than computing them all at once and sending them back in something like a list.(From Learning Python, 5th Edition by Mark Lutz)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 364,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def gensquares(n):\n",
    "        for i in range(n):\n",
    "            yield i ** 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 365,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<generator object gensquares at 0x7f538614b150>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f=gensquares(n)\n",
    "print(f)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 366,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0,1,4,9,16,"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i in gensquares(5):     # Resume the function\n",
    "        print(i , end=',')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 328,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def reverse(data):\n",
    "    for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):\n",
    "        yield data[index]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 332,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[4, 3, 2, 1, 0]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 332,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(range(5-1, -1, -1))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 333,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "flog"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for char in reverse('golf'): print (char , end='')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "## Generator Expressions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Similar to list-comprehensions:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 334,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "285"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 334,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "sum(i*i for i in range(10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 337,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<zip object at 0x7f5385ffa1e0>\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "260"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 337,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "xvec = [10, 20, 30]\n",
    "yvec = [7, 5, 3]\n",
    "print(zip(xvec, yvec))\n",
    "sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 336,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "{'P', 'x', 'n', 'U', 'D', 'h', 'q', 'u', 'a', 'r', 'f', 'j', 'I', 'i', 'b', 'e', 'g', 'd', 'p', 'L', 'M', 's', ',', 'A', 'o', 'm', 'c', 'l', 'S', '.', 't', 'N', 'v'}\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\n",
    "unique_words = set(word for line in page for word in line.split())\n",
    "print(unique_words)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Church-Rosser"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Python is <font color=red> **not** </font> **Church-Rosser**. Very much not so. Order of evaluation matters.\n",
    "\n",
    "- Python seems to have poor support for parallel execution.\n",
    "- There are libraries, but the mathematician in me says they’re patching over something that’s fundamentally broken.\n",
    "- The whole design philosophy of Python is optimised (it seems to me) for the single threaded execution model.\n",
    "- Simple, but (obviously) this does not scale to multiple processors or cores.  \n",
    "- Python doesn’t really manage threading at all; it delegates this to the OS.\n",
    "- This is partly why it is so amusingly easy for Python to crash my machine: if a Python program hogs processor or memory resources, I have to send it an OS interrupt.\n",
    "- Python itself won’t step in to throttle or manage its own processes.\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
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