diff --git a/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.cpp b/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.cpp
index 2c6c94006..f017cb2bc 100644
--- a/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.cpp
+++ b/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.cpp
@@ -558,11 +558,11 @@ const char* to_string(SwapchainError err)
     }
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(InstanceError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(InstanceError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(InstanceError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(InstanceError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -571,11 +571,11 @@ std::exception to_exception(InstanceError error, VkResult result)
     return std::runtime_error(message);
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -584,11 +584,11 @@ std::exception to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError error, VkResult result)
     return std::runtime_error(message);
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(QueueError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(QueueError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(QueueError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(QueueError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -597,11 +597,11 @@ std::exception to_exception(QueueError error, VkResult result)
     return std::runtime_error(message);
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(DeviceError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(DeviceError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(DeviceError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(DeviceError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -610,11 +610,11 @@ std::exception to_exception(DeviceError error, VkResult result)
     return std::runtime_error(message);
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(SwapchainError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SwapchainError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(SwapchainError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SwapchainError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -2178,11 +2178,11 @@ const char* to_string(SurfaceSupportError err)
     }
 }
 
-std::exception to_exception(SurfaceSupportError error)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SurfaceSupportError error)
 {
     return std::runtime_error(to_string(error));
 }
-std::exception to_exception(SurfaceSupportError error, VkResult result)
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SurfaceSupportError error, VkResult result)
 {
     std::string message{};
     message.append(to_string(error));
@@ -2819,18 +2819,19 @@ std::exception sdl_exception()
     return std::runtime_error(SDL_GetError());
 }
 
-void device_initialization_phase_1(const std::string& window_name, InitInfo& init)
+void device_initialization_phase_2(const std::string& window_name, InitInfo& init)
 {
-    init.window = create_window_sdl(window_name.data(), true, 1024, 1024);
+    if (!init.instance.headless) {
+        init.window = create_window_sdl(window_name.data(), true, 1024, 1024);
+        init.surface = create_surface_sdl(init.instance, init.window);
+    }
 }
 
-void device_initialization_phase_2(InstanceBuilder const& instance_builder, InitInfo& init)
+void device_initialization_phase_1(InstanceBuilder const& instance_builder, InitInfo& init)
 {
     init.instance = instance_builder.build();
 
     init.inst_disp = init.instance.make_table();
-
-    init.surface = create_surface_sdl(init.instance, init.window);
 }
 
 PhysicalDevice device_initialization_phase_3(PhysicalDeviceSelector& phys_device_selector, InitInfo& init)
@@ -2857,10 +2858,10 @@ InitInfo device_initialization(const std::string& window_name)
 {
     InitInfo init;
 
-    device_initialization_phase_1(window_name, init);
-
     InstanceBuilder instance_builder;
-    device_initialization_phase_2(instance_builder, init);
+    device_initialization_phase_1(instance_builder, init);
+
+    device_initialization_phase_2(window_name, init);
 
     PhysicalDeviceSelector phys_device_selector(init.instance);
     init.physical_device = device_initialization_phase_3(phys_device_selector, init);
@@ -2900,11 +2901,11 @@ void recreate_init_swapchain(SwapchainBuilder& swapchain_builder, InitInfo& init
 
 void TestAppBase::run(const std::string& window_name)
 {
-    device_initialization_phase_1(window_name, init);
-
     InstanceBuilder instance_builder;
     configure_instance_builder(instance_builder);
-    device_initialization_phase_2(instance_builder, init);
+    device_initialization_phase_1(instance_builder, init);
+
+    device_initialization_phase_2(window_name, init);
 
     PhysicalDeviceSelector phys_device_selector(init.instance);
     configure_physical_device_selector(phys_device_selector);
@@ -2914,9 +2915,11 @@ void TestAppBase::run(const std::string& window_name)
     configure_device_builder(device_builder, init.physical_device);
     device_initialization_phase_4(device_builder, init);
 
-    SwapchainBuilder swapchain_builder{ init.device };
-    configure_swapchain_builder(swapchain_builder);
-    device_initialization_phase_5(swapchain_builder, init);
+    if (!init.instance.headless) {
+        SwapchainBuilder swapchain_builder{ init.device };
+        configure_swapchain_builder(swapchain_builder);
+        device_initialization_phase_5(swapchain_builder, init);
+    }
 
     setup();
 
diff --git a/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.h b/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.h
index 114d77b81..59e303c02 100644
--- a/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.h
+++ b/test/test_apps/common/test_app_base.h
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
 #include <cstring>
 
 #include <optional>
-#include <exception>
+#include <stdexcept>
 #include <vector>
 #include <string>
 
@@ -176,17 +176,17 @@ const char* to_string(QueueError err);
 const char* to_string(DeviceError err);
 const char* to_string(SwapchainError err);
 
-std::exception to_exception(InstanceError err);
-std::exception to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError err);
-std::exception to_exception(QueueError err);
-std::exception to_exception(DeviceError err);
-std::exception to_exception(SwapchainError err);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(InstanceError err);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError err);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(QueueError err);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(DeviceError err);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SwapchainError err);
 
-std::exception to_exception(InstanceError err, VkResult result);
-std::exception to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError err, VkResult result);
-std::exception to_exception(QueueError err, VkResult result);
-std::exception to_exception(DeviceError err, VkResult result);
-std::exception to_exception(SwapchainError err, VkResult result);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(InstanceError err, VkResult result);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(PhysicalDeviceError err, VkResult result);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(QueueError err, VkResult result);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(DeviceError err, VkResult result);
+std::runtime_error to_exception(SwapchainError err, VkResult result);
 
 // Gathers useful information about the available vulkan capabilities, like layers and instance
 // extensions. Use this for enabling features conditionally, ie if you would like an extension but
@@ -249,8 +249,8 @@ struct Instance
     // Return a loaded instance dispatch table
     vkb::InstanceDispatchTable make_table() const;
 
-  private:
     bool     headless                = false;
+  private:
     bool     properties2_ext_enabled = false;
     uint32_t instance_version        = VKB_VK_API_VERSION_1_0;
     uint32_t api_version             = VKB_VK_API_VERSION_1_0;